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司法自由裁量权包含民事审判权和民事执行权两大部分,民事执行阶段同样存在自由裁量权的运用和规范问题,它是司法自由裁量权在执行程序中的表现形态。执行程序自由裁量权并非指执行法官有权更改执行名义所确定的内容,而是指执行裁决中和执行实施中面对各种执行法律适用、事实认定和执行内容过于模糊时进行判断、选择和解释的权力,相对于审判阶段的自由裁量权而言,执行程序中的自由裁量权更容易发生权力滥用可能,因此,执行程序自由裁量权必须是在法律规范下有序运行,方能发挥其权利保护和权利救济的作用。


一、横向分权:合理配置裁决权与实施权以分离制衡


我国民事执行领域的执行难和执行乱固然有客观社会信用制度和经济环境的外在因素,而执行权的模糊定位与个案执行权过分集中也是重要的症结所在。规制自由裁量权的首要考量就是分权,按执行程序的阶段特征重新配置执行权力,从而达到能够有效地制衡权力的目的。首先应该实现执行机构的分离,执行裁决与执行实施事项分属不同的执行庭室;其次,执行裁决事项和执行实施事项应该明确区分,分别由不同的法官行使这两类性质的权力。最高人民法院颁布的《关于执行权合理配置和科学运行的若干意见》已经对裁决事项和实施事项进行了明确列举和划分,为两权分权运行提供了法律依据,这也是国外执行制度健全国家比较普遍的做法。


二、纵向切割:执行权分段运行机制的构筑和完善


执行过程中执行自由裁量权过于集中是很多问题的根源,打破案件执行过程一人单独行使执行权的现象,必须对执行权进行分割和制约。对执行自由裁量权权力制衡的方案有两种,一种是法院与院外行政机关的制衡,另一种是在法院内部实行分权制衡。执行分段流程机制的构建就是从法院内部,根据案件执行程序的特征从纵向角度,将案件办理的权力分解成若干部分,每名法官就其负责的阶段实施执行权力,执行分段流程制度已经成为全国法院改革的价值取向和目标,它的效果在实践中得到了认可,虽然没有明确宣示针对自由裁量权的弊端入手,但本质上是对自由裁量权的纵向性切割,把以前一人行使的权力分化成由若干主体共同行使,减少了权力运用的任意性,这是自由裁量权内部的监督制约。


三、立体规制:打造执行程序三个层次上的权力(权利)互动


尽管民事审判权与执行权在权利性质、运行模式和价值取向存在较大差异,但二者都属于司法权范畴之内,必然存在诸多共通属性。审判自由裁量权的运行规则相对成熟、稳定,具有一定的合理性和实务上的可操作性。从审判权与执行权互动的视角对执行自由裁量权进行规制,不失为一个可取的思路。


1.民事执行权与审判权的沟通与互动


在传统理念上,大多数执行法官认为合议庭是民事审判程序上的必然存在,与执行程序不相吻合。其实,合议庭的主要功能就是最大限度克服法官在认定事实、证据采纳和法律适用中的任意性,无限接近案件的客观真实,使程序走向客观化。最高人民法院已经充分认识到了合议制度对执行程序的重要性,在其颁布的《关于执行权合理配置和科学运行的若干意见》中明确规定,执行审查事项应该采取合议制度。执行裁决过程中的合议程序有利于自由裁量权的集体行使,可以摒除权力运用的主观性和恣意性,对每个权力行使的主体形成有效制约。执行合议制度是打破审执长久分离、互不相干的藩篱,借鉴民事审判程序的制度对自由裁量权进行规制的新举措。


在执行实施程序中,鉴于我国当前经济社会的实际情况,如果也同裁决程序一样,实行合议制度必然影响执行的效率,不利于债权人权利的迅速实现,因此,最高人民法院区分执行裁决权和执行实施权,规定执行实施事项采用审批制,明确了对执行实施阶段的自由裁量权不同于执行裁决阶段的规制方式。执行实施权由法官行使,也可以由执行人员行使,行使实施权应该经由庭长、主管院长甚至上级法院审批后实行,重大紧急的实施事项,执行实施权行使完毕后,应该报庭长、主管院长或上级法院审批。


2.执行自由裁量权与执行程序监督权的互动


民事执行权的部分行政权属性,必然要求对执行权进行应有的监督,这种监督除了检察监督、人大监督和社会监督等外部监督外,在执行机构内部也应该建构常态性的监督程序,很多基层法院和中级法院的做法是由执行审查机构对执行实施部门实施程序监督、由审判监督庭对执行审查部门的执行裁决程序进行监督,这样的内部监督模式值得推广,它来源于执行程序自由裁量权与执行监督权的互动视角,为执行自由裁量权运用提供了操作性更强的规制手段。


3.民事执行权与当事人参与权的互动


我国当前执行模式注重执行权的单向运用与规范,对当事人参与权对执行权的影响和双方互动关注不够。美国、德国等欧美国家,正进行“执行私有化”改革,强化当事人在整个执行程序中的主动性和责任担当,弱化执行权的职权主义行使,尽管这种执行模式不适用我国当下的国情和司法权特征,但加大当事人对执行整个过程的参与力度、深度和广度,对案件执行的效果和执行自由裁量权的合理运用助益甚大。当事人参与权表现在程序的各个环节,包括情况被告知权、出庭陈述权、意见发表权、建议受尊重权等各项权利。通过当事人参与执行程序,能有助于查清案件事实及遏制法官行使权力的任意性,为自由裁量权的行使提供程序保障。执行结果的承受者是当事人,这就决定了程序效果最终承担者的当事人理应比法官享有对执行程序更多的控制权。因此,当事人尤其是债权人理应深度参与执行程序。法官的选择机会向当事人转移的越多,法官的自由裁量权也就相对越小。这样,通过执行权与当事人参与权的二元互动,达成对自由裁量权运用的合理规制。


(作者单位:北京市朝阳区人民法院)

关于住房保障规范化管理检查情况的通报

住房和城乡建设部


关于住房保障规范化管理检查情况的通报

各省、自治区住房城乡建设厅,北京市住房城乡建设委,天津市、重庆市国土房管局,上海市住房保障房屋管理局,新疆生产建设兵团建设局:

  按照我部《关于对住房保障规范化管理工作进行检查的通知》(建办保函[2010]820号)的部署,29个省、自治区、直辖市及新疆生产建设兵团认真组织开展了检查工作,并上报了检查情况。西藏自治区、新疆维吾尔自治区没有上报检查情况。我部对上海、重庆、福建、四川等省市进行了抽查。从检查情况看,各地在加快保障性住房建设的同时,高度重视住房保障规范化管理工作,通过完善政策、健全机制、加强监管,保障性住房管理逐步规范,但也存在一些突出问题。现将检查情况通报如下:

  一、基本情况

  各地认真贯彻落实2010年全国保障性住房管理工作座谈会部署和加强保障性住房管理有关文件要求,实行建管并重,在加快项目建设的同时,加强了管理工作,住房保障规范化管理水平明显提高。

  一是制度建设得到加强。各地普遍建立了廉租住房、经济适用住房制度,根据《关于加快发展公共租赁住房的指导意见》,明确发展公共租赁住房的政策措施,北京、上海、重庆、河北、山西、浙江、广东、海南、四川、陕西等省市,以及宁波、郑州、广州、深圳、海口、昆明、黄石等城市,结合当地实际,出台了公共租赁住房管理办法。山西、吉林、河南、湖北、海南等地出台了加强廉租住房、经济适用住房管理的政策措施。广州市颁布实施了《广州市保障性住房小区管理扣分办法》、《广州市住房保障工作接受社会监督办法(试行)》。

  二是管理服务逐步到位。各省级住房城乡建设部门建立了住房保障工作机构,部分市县组建了住房保障管理机构及实施机构,设立了办事窗口,充实了工作人员,逐步完善了工作机制。北京、天津、上海、重庆等城市在市、区两级分别成立了住房保障工作机构,在街道设立了住房保障或社会保障科,建立了受理服务窗口。河北省各地级城市成立了保障性住房管理中心。成都市开展了住房保障进社区上门服务,并为保障家庭提供户籍迁移等服务事项。

  三是实施程序逐渐规范。多数地区建立了房管等多部门对住房保障对象经济状况审查的协作机制,实行了市、区、街道三级联动的审核公示程序,严把准入审核关。上海市成立了住房保障对象经济状况核对中心。重庆市建立了公共租赁住房对象审查多部门数据信息共享机制。北京市廉租住房实物配租由“暗补”变“明补”,明确市场租金标准,同时根据保障对象收入水平计发租赁补贴,有利于促进住房保障的合理退出。

  四是动态管理不断强化。各地按要求建立了低收入家庭住房保障统计报表制度,完善了保障性住房档案的归集、整理、保管、利用制度。北京、天津、上海、山西、吉林、江苏、安徽、河南、湖北、湖南等省市建立了统一的住房保障管理信息系统,实现了住房保障管理工作网上办公。河北等省建立保障性住房、棚户区改造项目库,及时掌握工作进展情况。吉林、江苏等省出台规范住房保障档案相关规定,加强基础档案管理。

  当前,住房保障规范化管理仍存在一些突出问题,不适应住房保障工作的新形势,需进一步研究解决。一是认识不到位。一些地方对住房保障规范化管理的重要性认识不足,存在重建设、轻管理的现象,有的地方没有按要求组织规范化管理检查考核工作。二是审核机制不完善。一些地方收入(财产)核查的部门协作机制不健全,核查的信息化程度不高,审核难度较大。三是动态监管不到位。住房保障信息管理系统建设滞后,尚未建立有效的监管手段,不能及时监测保障性住房使用和保障对象经济状况变化情况。四是机构队伍不健全。部分市县没有设立专门的住房保障管理工作机构和实施机构,街道、居委会等基层工作力量薄弱,人员多为兼职,工作经费落实不到位,不能满足住房保障工作需要。

  二、下一步工作要求

  随着保障性安居工程建设加快推进,保障性住房大规模建设并投入使用,住房保障管理任务更加繁重。各地要充分认识规范化管理工作的重要性、长期性,进一步采取有效措施,落实管理责任,提升管理水平,全面建立科学有序、行为规范、办事高效、公开透明的管理体制机制。

  一是完善管理制度。各地要在认真贯彻落实中央有关政策基础上,结合当地实际,完善有关政策措施,制定具体的管理规定,逐步完善住房保障制度体系。要学习借鉴深圳、厦门的经验做法,加快住房保障立法进程,为做好保障性住房建设和管理工作提供法制保证,推进住房保障工作制度化、法制化。

  二是建立部门协作机制。要加强部门协作,健全住房保障、民政、公安、金融等机构和社区协作配合的保障对象经济状况审查机制,建立完善的住房保障审核制度,形成齐抓共管的住房保障工作局面。

  三是强化动态监管。要建立健全住房保障管理信息系统,对保障对象家庭经济状况及其变化情况进行实时监测,创新监管手段,提高监管效能。要定期或不定期地对保障性住房使用情况进行检查,及时发现并纠正各种违规使用行为;对住房保障对象进行定期复审和不定期抽查,根据保障对象经济状况变化情况,调整实施住房保障。

  四是健全档案管理。2011年,要将廉租住房、经济适用住房、公共租赁住房等住房保障档案管理作为重点工作,健全档案材料的收集、整理、归档制度,形成建设项目、房屋使用、保障对象等档案体系,确保住房保障档案完整、安全和有效利用。

  五是加强机构队伍建设。建立健全管理工作机构和实施机构,明确工作职能,充实管理人员。要通过集中培训、行风建设、学习交流等各种方式,努力建设一支政策水平高、业务能力强、工作作风硬的干部队伍,推进住房保障事业持续健康发展。

  我部、监察部将会同有关部门,对保障性住房租售管理和后期使用监管不力的地区,按照有关规定对相关负责人进行约谈和问责。



            中华人民共和国住房和城乡建设部办公厅
           二〇一一年三月三日


GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF THE CIVIL LAW OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ——附加英文版

The National People's Congress


GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF THE CIVIL LAW OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA

(Adopted at the Fourth Session of the Sixth National People's
Congress, promulgated by Order No. 37 of the President of the People's
Republic of China on April 12, 1986, and effective as of January 1, 1987)

Contents
Chapter I Basic Principles
Chapter II Citizen (Natural Person)
Section 1 Capacity for Civil Rights and Capacity for Civil
Conduct
Section 2 Guardianship
Section 3 Declarations of Missing Persons and Death
Section 4 Individual Businesses and Leaseholding Farm
Households
Section 5 Individual Partnership
Chapter III Legal Persons
Section 1 General Stipulations
Section 2 Enterprise as Legal Person
Section 3 Official Organ, Institution and Social
Organization as Legal Persons
Section 4 Economic Association
Chapter IV Civil Juristic Acts and Agency
Section 1 Civil Juristic Acts
Section 2 Agency
Chapter V Civil Rights
Section 1 Property Ownership and Related Property Rights
Section 2 Creditors' Rights
Section 3 Intellectual Property Rights
Section 4 Personal Rights
Chapter VI Civil Liability
Section 1 General Stipulations
Section 2 Civil Liability for Breach of Contract
Section 3 Civil Liability for Infringement of Rights
Section 4 Methods of Bearing Civil Liability
Chapter VII Limitation of Action
Chapter VIII Application of Law in Civil Relations with Foreigners
Chapter IX Supplementary Provisions

Chapter I Basic Principles
Article 1
This Law is formulated in accordance with the Constitution and the actual
situation in our country, drawing upon our practical experience in civil
activities, for the purpose of protecting the lawful civil rights and
interests of citizens and legal persons and correctly adjusting civil
relations, so as to meet the needs of the developing socialist
modernization.
Article 2
The Civil Law of the People's Republic of China shall adjust property
relationships and personal relationships between civil subjects with equal
status, that is, between citizens, between legal persons and between
citizens and legal persons.
Article 3
Parties to a civil activity shall have equal status.
Article 4
In civil activities, the principles of voluntariness, fairness, making
compensation for equal value, honesty and credibility shall be observed.
Article 5
The lawful civil rights and interests of citizens and legal persons shall
be protected by law; no organization or individual may infringe upon them.
Article 6
Civil activities must be in compliance with the law; where there are no
relevant provisions in the law, they shall be in compliance with state
policies.
Article 7
Civil activities shall have respect for social ethics and shall not harm
the public interest, undermine state economic plans or disrupt social
economic order.
Article 8
The law of the People's Republic of China shall apply to civil activities
within the People's Republic of China, except as otherwise stipulated by
law.
The stipulations of this Law as regards citizens shall apply to foreigners
and stateless persons within the People's Republic of China, except as
otherwise stipulated by law.

Chapter II Citizen (Natural Person)
Section 1 Capacity for Civil Rights and Capacity for Civil Conduct.
Article 9
A citizen shall have the capacity for civil rights from birth to death and
shall enjoy civil rights and assume civil obligations in accordance with
the law.
Article 10
All citizens are equal as regards their capacity for civil rights.
Article 11
A citizen aged 18 or over shall be an adult. He shall have full capacity
for civil conduct, may independently engage in civil activities and shall
be called a person with full capacity for civil conduct.
A citizen who has reached the age of 16 but not the age of 18 and whose
main source of income is his own labour shall be regarded as a person with
full capacity for civil conduct.
Article 12
A minor aged 10 or over shall be a person with limited capacity for civil
conduct and may engage in civil activities appropriate to his age and
intellect; in other civil activities, he shall be represented by his agent
ad litem or participate with the consent of his agent ad litem.
A minor under the age of 10 shall be a person having no capacity for civil
conduct and shall be represented in civil activities by his agent ad
litem.
Article 13
A mentally ill person who is unable to account for his own conduct shall
be a person having no capacity for civil conduct and shall be represented
in civil activities by his agent ad litem.
A mentally ill person who is unable to fully account for his own conduct
shall be a person with limited capacity for civil conduct and may engage
in civil activities appropriate to his mental health; in other civil
activities, he shall be represented by his agent ad litem or participate
with the consent of his agent ad litem.
Article 14
The guardian of a person without or with limited capacity for civil
conduct shall be his agent ad litem.
Article 15
The domicile of a citizen shall be the place where his residence is
registered; if his habitual residence is not the same as his domicile, his
habitual residence shall be regarded as his domicile.
Section 2 Guardianship
Article 16
The parents of a minor shall be his guardians.
If the parents of a minor are dead or lack the competence to be his
guardian, a person from the following categories who has the competence to
be a guardian shall act as his guardian:
(1) paternal or maternal grandparent;
(2) elder brother or sister; or
(3) any other closely connected relative or friend willing to bear the
responsibility of guardianship and having approval from the units of the
minor's parents or from the neighbourhood or village committee in the
place of the minor's residence. In case of a dispute over guardianship,
the units of the minor's parents or the neighbourhood or village committee
in the place of his residence shall appoint a guardian from among the
minor's near relatives. If disagreement over the appointment leads to a
lawsuit, the people's court shall make a ruling.
If none of the persons listed in the first two paragraphs of this article
is available to be the guardian, the units of the minor's parents, the
neighbourhood or village committee in the place of the minor's residence
or the civil affairs department shall act as his guardian.
Article 17
A person from the following categories shall act as guardian for a
mentally ill person without or with limited capacity for civil conduct:
(1) spouse;
(2) parent;
(3) adult child;
(4) any other near relative;
(5) any other closely connected relative or friend willing to bear the
responsibility of guardianship and having approval from the unit to which
the mentally ill person belongs or from the neighbourhood or village
committee in the place of his residence. In case of a dispute over
guardianship, the unit to which the mentally ill person belongs or the
neighbourhood or village committee in the place of his residence shall
appoint a guardian from among his near relatives. If disagreement over the
appointment leads to a lawsuit, the people's court shall make a ruling.
If none of the persons listed in the first paragraph of this article is
available to be the guardian, the unit to which the mentally ill person
belongs, the neighbourhood or village committee in the place of his
residence or the civil affairs department shall act as his guardian.
Article 18
A guardian shall fulfil his duty of guardianship and protect the person,
property and other lawful rights and interests of his ward. A guardian
shall not handle the property of his ward unless it is in the ward's
interests.
A guardian's rights to fulfil his guardianship in accordance with the law
shall be protected by law.
If a guardian does not fulfil his duties as guardian or infringes upon the
lawful rights and interests of his ward, he shall be held responsible; if
a guardian causes any property loss for his ward, he shall compensate for
such loss. The people's court may disqualify a guardian based on the
application of a concerned party or unit.
Article 19
A person who shares interests with a mental patient may apply to a
people's court for a declaration that the mental patient is a person
without or with limited capacity for civil conduct.
With the recovery of the health of a person who has been declared by a
people's court to be without or with limited capacity for civil conduct,
and upon his own application or that of an interested person, the people's
court may declare him to be a person with limited or full capacity for
civil conduct.
Section 3 Declarations of Missing Persons and Death
Article 20
If a citizen's whereabouts have been unknown for two years, an interested
person may apply to a people's court for a declaration of the citizen as
missing.
If a person's whereabouts become unknown during a war, the calculation of
the time period in which his whereabouts are unknown shall begin on the
final day of the war.
Article 21
A missing person's property shall be placed in the custody of his spouse,
parents, adult children or other closely connected relatives or friends.
In case of a dispute over custody, if the persons stipulated above are
unavailable or are incapable of taking such custody, the property shall be
placed in the custody of a person appointed by the people's court. Any
taxes, debts and other unpaid expenses owed by a missing person shall
defrayed by the custodian out of the missing person's property.
Article 22
In the event that a person who has been declared missing reappears or his
whereabouts are ascertained, the people's court shall, upon his own
application or that of an interested person, revoke the declaration of his
missing-person status.
Article 23
Under either of the following circumstances, an interested person may
apply to the people's court for a declaration of a citizen's death:
(1) if the citizen's whereabouts have been unknown for four years or
(2) if the citizen's whereabouts have been unknown for two years after the
date of an accident in which he was involved.
If a person's whereabouts become unknown during a war, the calculation of
the time period in which his whereabouts are unknown shall begin on the
final day of the war.
Article 24
In the event that a person who has been declared dead reappears or it is
ascertained that he is alive, the people's court shall, upon his own
application or that of an interested person, revoke the declaration of his
death.
Any civil juristic acts performed by a person with capacity for civil
conduct during the period in which he has been declared dead shall be
valid.
Article 25
A person shall have the right to request the return of his property, if
the declaration of his death has been revoked. Any citizen or organization
that has obtained such property in accordance with the Law of Succession
shall return the original items or make appropriate compensation if the
original items no longer exist.
Section 4 Individual Businesses and Leaseholding Farm Households
Article 26
"Individual businesses" refers to business run by individual citizens who
have been lawfully registered and approved to engage in industrial or
commercial operation within the sphere permitted by law. An individual
business may adopt a shop name.
Article 27
"Leaseholding farm households" refers to members of a rural collective
economic organization who engage in commodity production under a contract
and within the spheres permitted by law.
Article 28
The legitimate rights and interests of individual businesses and
leaseholding farm households shall be protected by law.
Article 29
The debts of an individual business or a leaseholding farm household shall
be secured with the individual's property if the business is operated by
an individual and with the family's property if the business is operated
by a family.
Section 5 Individual Partnership
Article 30
"Individual partnership" refers to two or more citizens associated in a
business and working together, with each providing funds, material
objects, techniques and so on according to an agreement.
Article 31
Partners shall make a written agreement covering the funds each is to
provide, the distribution of profits, the responsibility for debts, the
entering into and withdrawal from partnership, the ending of partnership
and other such matters.
Article 32
The property provided by the partners shall be under their unified
management and use. The property accumulated in a partnership operation
shall belong to all the partners.
Article 33
An individual partnership may adopt a shop name; it shall be approved and
registered in accordance with the law and conduct business operations
within the range as approved and registered.
Article 34
The operational activities of an individual partnership shall be decided
jointly by the partners, who each shall have the right to carry out and
supervise those activities. The partners may elect a responsible person.
All partners shall bear civil liability for the operational activities of
the responsible person and other personnel.
Article 35
A partnership's debts shall be secured with the partners' property in
proportion to their respective contributions to the investment or
according to the agreement made. Partners shall undertake joint liability
for their partnership's debts, except as otherwise stipulated by law. Any
partner who overpays his share of the partnership's debts shall have the
right to claim compensation from the other partners.

Chapter III Legal Persons
Section 1 General Stipulations
Article 36
A legal person shall be an organization that has capacity for civil rights
and capacity for civil conduct and independently enjoys civil rights and
assumes civil obligations in accordance with the law.
A legal person's capacity for civil rights and capacity for civil conduct
shall begin when the legal person is established and shall end when the
legal person terminates.
Article 37
A legal person shall have the following qualifications:
(1) establishment in accordance with the law;
(2) possession of the necessary property or funds;
(3) possession of its own name, organization and premises; and
(4) ability to independently bear civil liability.
Article 38
In accordance with the law or the articles of association of the legal
person, the responsible person who acts on behalf of the legal person in
exercising its functions and powers shall be its legal representative.
Article 39
A legal person's domicile shall be the place where its main administrative
office is located.
Article 40
When a legal person terminates, it shall go into liquidation in accordance
with the law and discontinue all other activities.
Section 2 Enterprise as Legal Person
Article 41
An enterprise owned by the whole people or under collective ownership
shall be qualified as a legal person when it has sufficient funds as
stipulated by the state; has articles of association, an organization and
premises; has the ability to independently bear civil liability; and has
been approved and registered by the competent authority. A Chinese-
foreign equity joint venture, Chinese-foreign contractual joint venture or
foreign-capital enterprise established within the People's Republic of
China shall be qualified as a legal person in China if it has the
qualifications of a legal person and has been approved and registered by
the administrative agency for industry and commerce in according with the
law.
Article 42
An enterprise as legal person shall conduct operations within the range
approved and registered.
Article 43
An enterprise as legal person shall bear civil liability for the
operational activities of its legal representatives and other personnel.
Article 44
If an enterprise as legal person is divided or merged or undergoes any
other important change, it shall register the change with the registration
authority and publicly announce it.
When an enterprise as legal person is divided or merged, its rights and
obligations shall be enjoyed and assumed by the new legal person that
results from the change.
Article 45
An enterprise as legal person shall terminate for any of the following
reasons:
(1) if it is dissolved by law;
(2) if it is disbanded;
(3) if it is declared bankrupt in accordance with the law; or
(4) for other reasons.
Article 46
When an enterprise as legal person terminates, it shall cancel its
registration with the registration authority and publicly announce the
termination.
Article 47
When an enterprise as legal person is disbanded, it shall establish a
liquidation organization and go into liquidation. When an enterprise as
legal person is dissolved or is declared bankrupt, the competent authority
or a people's court shall organize the organs and personnel concerned to
establish a liquidation organization to liquidate the enterprise.
Article 48
An enterprise owned by the whole people, as legal person, shall bear civil
liability with the property that the state authorizes it to manage. An
enterprise under collective ownership, as legal person, shall bear civil
liability with the property it owns. A Chinese-foreign equity joint
venture, Chinese-foreign contractual joint venture or foreign-capital
enterprise as legal person shall bear civil liability with the property it
owns, except as stipulated otherwise by law.
Article 49
Under any of the following circumstances, an enterprise as legal person
shall bear liability, its legal representative may additionally be given
administrative sanctions and fined and, if the offence constitutes a
crime, criminal responsibility shall be investigated in accordance with
the law:
(1) conducting illegal operations beyond the range approved and registered
by the registration authority;
(2) concealing facts from the registration and tax authorities and
practising fraud;
(3) secretly withdrawing funds or hiding property to evade repayment of
debts;
(4) disposing of property without authorization after the enterprise is
dissolved, disbanded or declared bankrupt;
(5) failing to apply for registration and make a public announcement
promptly when the enterprise undergoes a change or terminates, thus
causing interested persons to suffer heavy losses;
(6) engaging in other activities prohibited by law, damaging the interests
of the state or the public interest.
Section 3 Official Organ, Institution and Social Organization as Legal
Person
Article 50
An independently funded official organ shall be qualified as a legal
person on the day it is established.
If according to law an institution or social organization having the
qualifications of a legal person needs not go through the procedures for
registering as a legal person, it shall be qualified as a legal person on
the day it is established; if according to law it does need to go through
the registration procedures, it shall be qualified as a legal person after
being approved and registered.
Section 4 Economic Association
Article 51
If a new economic entity is formed by enterprises or an enterprise and an
institution that engage in economic association and it independently bears
civil liability and has the qualifications of a legal person, the new
entity shall be qualified as a legal person after being approved and
registered by the competent authority.
Article 52
If the enterprises or an enterprise and an institution that engage in
economic association conduct joint operation but do not have the
qualifications of a legal person, each party to the association shall, in
proportion to its respective contribution to the investment or according
to the agreement made, bear civil liability with the property each party
owns or manages. If joint liability is specified by law or by agreement,
the parties shall assume joint liability.
Article 53
If the contract for economic association of enterprises or of an
enterprise and an institution specifies that each party shall conduct
operations independently, it shall stipulate the rights and obligations of
each party, and each party shall bear civil liability separately.

Chapter IV Civil Juristic Acts and Agency
Section 1 Civil Juristic Acts
Article 54
A civil juristic act shall be the lawful act of a citizen or legal person
to establish, change or terminate civil rights and obligations.
Article 55
A civil juristic act shall meet the following requirements:
(1) the actor has relevant capacity for civil conduct;
(2) the intention expressed is genuine; and
(3) the act does not violate the law or the public interest.
Article 56
A civil juristic act may be in written, oral or other form. If the law
stipulates that a particular form be adopted, such stipulation shall be
observed.
Article 57
A civil juristic act shall be legally binding once it is instituted. The
actor shall not alter or rescind his act except in accordance with the law
or with the other party's consent.
Article 58
Civil acts in the following categories shall be null and void:
(1) those performed by a person without capacity for civil conduct;
(2) those that according to law may not be independently performed by a
person with limited capacity for civil conduct;
(3) those performed by a person against his true intentions as a result of
cheating, coercion or exploitation of his unfavourable position by the
other party;
(4) those that performed through malicious collusion are detrimental to
the interest of the state, a collective or a third party;
(5) those that violate the law or the public interest;
(6) economic contracts that violate the state's mandatory plans; and
(7) those that performed under the guise of legitimate acts conceal
illegitimate purposes. Civil acts that are null and void shall not be
legally binding from the very beginning.
Article 59
A party shall have the right to request a people's court or an arbitration
agency to alter or rescind the following civil acts:
(1) those performed by an actor who seriously misunderstood the contents
of the acts;
(2) those that are obviously unfair.
Rescinded civil acts shall be null and void from the very beginning.
Article 60
If part of a civil act is null and void, it shall not affect the validity
of other parts.
Article 61
After a civil act has been determined to be null and void or has been
rescinded, the party who acquired property as a result of the act shall
return it to the party who suffered a loss. The erring party shall
compensate the other party for the losses it suffered as a result of the
act; if both sides are in error, they shall each bear their proper share
of the responsibility.
If the two sides have conspired maliciously and performed a civil act that
is detrimental to the interests of the state, a collective or a third
party, the property that they thus obtained shall be recovered and turned
over to the state or the collective, or returned to the third party.
Article 62
A civil juristic act may have conditions attached to it. Conditional civil
juristic acts shall take effect when the relevant conditions are met.
Section 2 Agency
Article 63
Citizens and legal persons may perform civil juristic acts through agents
An agent shall perform civil juristic acts in the principal's name within
the scope of the power of agency. The principal shall bear civil liability
for the agent's acts of agency. Civil juristic acts that should be
performed by the principal himself, pursuant to legal provisions or the
agreement between the two parties, shall not be entrusted to an agent.
Article 64
Agency shall include entrusted agency, statutory agency and appointed
agency. An entrusted agent shall exercise the power of agency as
entrusted by the principal; a statutory agent shall exercise the power of
agency as prescribed by law; and an appointed agent shall exercise the
power of agency as designated by a people's court or the appointing unit.
Article 65
A civil juristic act may be entrusted to an agent in writing or orally. If
legal provisions require the entrustment to be written, it shall be
effected in writing. Where the entrustment of agency is in writing, the
power of attorney shall clearly state the agent's name, the entrusted
tasks and the scope and duration of the power of agency, and it shall be
signed or sealed by the principal.
If the power of attorney is not clear as to the authority conferred, the
principal shall bear civil liability towards the third party, and the
agent shall be held jointly liable.
Article 66
The principal shall bear civil liability for an act performed by an actor
with no power of agency, beyond the scope of his power of agency or after
his power of agency has expired, only if he recognizes the act
retroactively. If the act is not so recognized, the performer shall bear
civil liability for it. If a principal is aware that a civil act is being
executed in his name but fails to repudiate it, his consent shall be
deemed to have been given.
An agent shall bear civil liability if he fails to perform his duties and
thus causes damage to the principal.
If an agent and a third party in collusion harm the principal's interests,
the agent and the third party shall be held jointly liable.
If a third party is aware that an actor has no power of agency, is
overstepping his power of agency, or his power of agency has expired and
yet joins him in a civil act and thus brings damage to other people, the
third party and the actor shall be held jointly liable.
Article 67
If an agent is aware that the matters entrusted are illegal but still
carries them out, or if a principal is aware that his agent's acts are
illegal but fails to object to them, the principal and the agent shall be
held jointly liable.
Article 68
If in the principal's interests an entrusted agent needs to transfer the

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